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The Gender Pay Gap - A Literature Review
Equal pay for equal work [1] is the concept of labor rights that individuals doing the same work should receive the same remuneration. Equal pay relates to the full range of payments and benefits, including basic pay, non-salary payments, bonuses and allowances. Some countries have moved faster than others in addressing the problem, new jnches equality working group the gender pay gap a literature review.
Since President Kennedy signed the Equal Pay Act init has been illegal in the United States to pay men and women working in the same place different salaries for similar work.
As wage-labor became increasingly formalized during the Industrial Revolutionwomen were often paid less than their male counterparts for the same labor, whether for the explicit reason that they were women or under another pretext.
The principle of equal pay for equal work arose at the same time, as part of first-wave feminismwith early efforts for equal pay being associated with nineteenth-century Trade Union activism in industrialised countries: for example, a series of strikes by unionised women in the UK in the s.
However, following the Second World War, trade unions and the legislatures of industrialized countries gradually embraced the principle of equal pay for equal work; one example of this process is the UK's introduction of the Equal Pay Act in response both to the Treaty of Rome and the Ford sewing machinists strike of In recent years European trade unions have generally exerted pressure on states and employers for progress in this direction.
In international human rights lawthe statement on equal pay is the Equal Remuneration Conventionnew jnches equality working group the gender pay gap a literature review, Convention of the International Labour Organisationa United Nations body. The Convention states that. Equal pay for equal work is also covered by Article 7 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights[6] Article 4 of the European Social Charter[7] and Article 15 of African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights.
The EEOC's four affirmative defenses allows unequal pay for equal work when the wages are set "pursuant to i a seniority system; ii a merit system; iii a system which measures earnings by quantity or quality of production; or iv any other factor other than sex.
Post-war Europe has seen a fairly consistent pattern in women's participation in the labour market and legislation to promote equal pay for equal work across eastern and western countries. Some countries now in the EU, including France, Germany, and Poland, had already enshrined the principle of equal pay for equal work in their constitutions before the foundation of the EU see table below. When the European Economic Communitylater the European Union EUwas founded inthe principle of equal pay for equal work was named as a key principle.
Article of the Treaty of Rome says 'each Member State shall ensure that the principle of equal pay for male and female workers for equal work or work of equal value is applied. At the national level the principle of equal pay is in general fully reflected in the legislation of the 28 EU member states and the additional countries of the European Economic Area EEAIceland, Liechtenstein and Norway.
The EU candidate countries of Macedonia and Turkey also adapted their legislation to EU standards. The first attempt at equal pay legislation in the United States, new jnches equality working group the gender pay gap a literature review, H.
Stanley of Buffalo, N. on June 19, if such differentiation is authorized by the provisions of the [Equal Pay Act]. In WashingtonGovernor Evans implemented a pay equity study in and then another in The costs for implementing this equal pay policy was 2.
In Minnesotathe state began considering a formal comparable worth policy in the late s when the Minnesota Task Force of the Council on the Economic Status of Women commissioned Hay Associates to conduct a study.
Hay Associates proved that in the 19 years since the Equal Pay Act was passed, wage discrimination persisted and had even increased over from to The study finally recommended that the state take several courses of action: 1 establish comparable worth considerations for female- dominated jobs; 2 set aside money to ameliorate the pay inequity; 3 encourage affirmative action for women and other minorities and 4 continue analyzing the situation to improve it.
The Minnesota Legislature moved immediately in response. In the state appropriated According to the Star Tribune, in women in Minnesota state government made 97 cents to the dollar, ranking Minnesota as one of the most equal for female state workers in the country.
Under Australia's old centralised wage fixing system, "equal pay for work of equal value" by women was introduced in Anti-discrimination on the basis of sex was legislated in This is despite a law being passed in by the Australian legislature making sexual discrimination in the workplace illegal.
The figures change substantially when other factors are taken into account. Geographically, female workers living in the Australian Capital Territory show the lowest wage gap in the country at The highest wage gap is A survey by industry shows that the lowest wage gap is in the area of Public Administration and Safety, with a wage gap of 7. The highest wage gap is in the financial and insurance services industry, with a wage gap new jnches equality working group the gender pay gap a literature review Australian society also relies heavily on women to take on the unpaid caring roles, further hindering their access to the working marketplace.
As of Novemberthe wage gap in the private sector stands at This is primarily due to the method at which salaries are negotiated. In the private sector, wages are decided by individual negotiation, whereas in the public sector, wages are usually arrived at through collective bargaining agreements.
In Canadian usage, the terms pay equity and pay equality are used somewhat differently from in other countries. The two terms refer to distinctly separate legal concepts. Pay equalityor equal pay for equal work, refers to the requirement that men and women be paid the same if performing the same job in the same organization.
For example, a female electrician must be paid the same as a male electrician in the new jnches equality working group the gender pay gap a literature review organization. Reasonable differences are permitted if due to seniority or merit.
Note that federal legislation applies only to those employers in certain federally regulated industries such as banks, broadcasters, and airlines, to name a few. For most employers, the relevant legislation is that of the respective province or territory. For federally regulated employers, pay equality is guaranteed under the Canadian Human Rights Act.
In contrast, pay equityin the Canadian context, means that male-dominated occupations and female-dominated occupations of comparable value must be paid the same if within the same employer. One way of distinguishing the concepts is to note that pay equality addresses the rights of women employees as individuals, whereas pay equity addresses the rights of female-dominated occupations as groups.
Certain Canadian jurisdictions have pay equity legislation while others do not, hence the necessity of distinguishing between pay equity and pay equality in Canadian usage. For example, in Ontario, pay equality is guaranteed through the Ontario Employment Standards Act [42] while pay equity is guaranteed through the Ontario Pay Equity Act. Some provinces for example, Manitoba have legislation that requires pay equity for public sector employers but not for private sector employers; meanwhile, pay equality legislation applies to everyone.
In Taiwan, it legislate the Act of Gender Equality in Employment in It regulates that a boss must give the same salary to the workers who do the same work.
The law prescribes that employers shall not discriminate against employees because of their gender or sexual orientation in the case of paying wages. Employees shall receive equal pay for equal work or equal value, new jnches equality working group the gender pay gap a literature review. However, if such differentials are the result of seniority systems, award and discipline systems, merit systems or other justifiable reasons of non-sexual or non-sexual-orientation factors, the above-mentioned restriction shall not apply.
Employers may not adopt methods of reducing the wages of other employees in order to evade the stipulation of the preceding paragraph. According to a report released by the American Association of University Women AAUWthe gender pay gap—which had significantly narrowed since the s—has slowly plateaued in recent years.
Compiling data from the Census Bureau, the Department of Education and the Bureau of Labor Statistics, New jnches equality working group the gender pay gap a literature review calculated the median salaries for full-time employment in all 50 states and the District of Columbia.
In the U. Although down from a figure of 91 percent, Washington, D. maintains the smallest wage gap in the U. AAUW analyzed the pay gap by looking at full-time, year-round workers over the age of Education While greater education does increase women's overall earnings, it does not significantly close the gender wage gap.
At every academic achievement level, women's median salaries are less than men's by at least 21 percent. The pay gap is significantly linked to factors such as college major and type of job pursued after graduation, although there is still a large part that cannot be explained by career choice.
Ten years out of college, the gap widens with women earning a mere 69 percent of what men earn. The Nan Ya PCB corporation's female employee accused that the female employees' salary were less than male's. Besides,the company have sex discrimination on promotion and allowance obviously.
And it had already against the Act of Gender New jnches equality working group the gender pay gap a literature review. The employee said that the company existed sex discrimination for long time and it made females' right damage. The trade union bargained with the employer for many years. In order to resolve the dispute, the employer add one thousand allowance to female employees per month.
But the employees found it still can't eliminate the gender pay gap. Criticisms of the principle of equal pay for equal work include criticism of the mechanisms used to achieve it and the methodology by which the gap is measured. They argue the fundamental issue is that the employer is the owner of the job, not the government or the employee. The employer negotiates the job and pays according to performance, not according to job duties.
A private business would not want to lose its best performers by compensating them less and can ill afford paying its lower performers higher because the overall productivity will decline. The problem which exists in comparing jobs involving different skills with each other is that there are intangibles besides skills and experience which come into play in determining pay.
For example, it may take the same level of skills to be an electrician as it does to be a nurse, but if the electrician is performing their job feet above the base floor of an offshore oil rig, pay will tend to be higher because the attendant risks are likewise higher.
Indeed, many argue that the unwillingness of women to work in jobs which are dangerous or otherwise undesirable such as plumbing and coal mining accounts for a significant percentage of the wage gap. From Infogalactic: the planetary knowledge core. Jump to: navigationsearch. See also: Male—female income disparity in the United States.
Main articles: Equal Pay Act of and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of Main article: Gender pay gap in Australia. New JNCHES Equality Working Group, 'The Gender Pay Gap - A Literature Review', p. htmesp. tables 3 and 5. S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. EEOC Facts About Equal Pay and Compensation Discriminationaccessed on August 26, by Mary Zeiss Stange, Carol K. Oyster, and Jane E. Sloan SAGEpp.
The gender pay gap explained
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